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Let's start with Kinematics
1. What is the mathematical expression of Malus’s Law?
(A) I = I₀sinθ
(B) I = I₀tan²θ
(C) I = I₀cosθ
(D) I = I₀cos²θ
2. In a Malus’s law experiment, what happens to the intensity when the analyzer is perpendicular to the polarizer?
(A) Maximum
(B) Constant
(C) Doubles
(D) Zero
3. If the analyzer is rotated by 45°, what is the transmitted intensity as per Malus’s Law?
(A) I₀
(B) 0
(C) I₀/2
(D) I₀/4
4. A graph of intensity vs cos²θ should ideally be:
(A) A parabolic curve
(B) Exponential decay
(C) A straight line
(D) Sinusoidal wave
5. Which component is responsible for producing plane polarized light in the experiment?
(A) Analyzer
(B) Mirror
(C) Polarizer
(D) Photodiode
6. In Malus's experiment, which instrument is used to measure intensity of light?
(A) Spectrometer
(B) Multimeter
(C) Photodetector
(D) Galvanometer
7. Which of the following is NOT an assumption in verifying Malus’s Law?
(A) Light is linearly polarized
(B) Angle between polarizer and analyzer is well-defined
(C) Light is incoherent
(D) The medium is non-absorbing
8. Which property of light is used to measure specific rotation in optical activity experiments?
(A) Intensity
(B) Wavelength
(C) Plane of polarization
(D) Coherence
9. What is the unit of specific rotation?
(A) degree/m
(B) rad/cm
(C) degree·dm⁻¹·g⁻¹·cm³
(D) m⁻¹·kg⁻¹
10. Which solution is commonly used to demonstrate optical activity?
(A) Sodium chloride
(B) Copper sulfate
(C) Sugar (sucrose) solution
(D) Distilled water
11. Specific rotation depends on which of the following?
(A) Temperature
(B) Wavelength of light
(C) Concentration of solution
(D) All of the above
12. The rotation caused by optically active solution is:
(A) Clockwise only
(B) Anti-clockwise only
(C) Either clockwise or anti-clockwise
(D) Random
13. The device used to measure optical rotation is called:
(A) Spectrometer
(B) Photodiode
(C) Polarimeter
(D) Colorimeter
14. XRD stands for:
(A) X-ray Density Resolution
(B) X-ray Distribution Recording
(C) X-ray Diffraction
(D) X-ray Delay Resonance
15. Bragg’s Law is given by:
(A) nλ = 2dθ
(B) nλ = d/2sinθ
(C) nλ = dcosθ
(D) nλ = 2d·sinθ
16. In XRD, the diffraction peaks arise due to:
(A) Interference of reflected waves
(B) Absorption of X-rays
(C) Reflection from the surface only
(D) Constructive interference from lattice planes
17. What is the typical X-ray source used in powder XRD?
(A) Tungsten
(B) Sodium
(C) Copper (Cu Kα)
(D) Mercury
18. For cubic systems, the lattice parameter 'a' is related to interplanar distance 'd' by:
(A) a = d/(h² + k² + l²)
(B) a² = d(h + k + l)
(C) a² = d²(h² + k² + l²)
(D) d = a / √(h² + k² + l²)
19. In hexagonal crystals, the Miller indices are represented by:
(A) (hkl)
(B) (hk.l)
(C) (hkil)
(D) [hkl]
20. The XRD pattern of a single crystal shows:
(A) A continuous spectrum
(B) A broad peak
(C) No diffraction
(D) Discrete sharp peaks
21. What parameter is measured to determine the lattice constant using XRD?
(A) Absorption coefficient
(B) Intensity of X-rays
(C) Diffraction angle (2θ)
(D) Sample thickness
22. For a cubic crystal, the interplanar spacing 'd' for Miller indices (hkl) is:
(A) d = √(h² + k² + l²) / a
(B) d = a / √(h² + k² + l²)
(C) d = hkl / a²
(D) d = a² / (h + k + l)
23. How does a decrease in XRD peak position affect the calculated lattice constant?
(A) No effect
(B) Lattice constant increases
(C) Lattice constant decreases
(D) Lattice constant becomes zero
24. Which of the following is a source of systematic error in lattice constant measurement?
(A) Counting time
(B) Voltage fluctuation
(C) Zero error in goniometer
(D) Sample polishing
25. What is the dimension of lattice parameter in SI units?
(A) m⁻¹
(B) rad
(C) kg·m²
(D) meter
26. In cubic systems, what is the shape of the unit cell?
(A) Hexagon
(B) Rectangle
(C) Cube
(D) Rhombohedron
27. Which equation is used to determine crystallite size from XRD data?
(A) Bragg’s Law
(B) Scherrer Equation
(C) Scherrer’s formula: D = kλ / (βcosθ)
(D) Tauc relation
28. In the Scherrer formula, β refers to:
(A) Bragg angle
(B) Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM)
(C) Peak intensity
(D) Lattice constant
29. Which parameter indicates microstrain in a crystal?
(A) d-spacing
(B) Interatomic distance
(C) Broadening of XRD peaks
(D) Intensity shift
30. Which of the following contributes to peak broadening in XRD?
(A) Instrumental error
(B) Small crystallite size
(C) Lattice strain
(D) All of the above
31. The Scherrer constant k typically lies between:
(A) 0.001 – 0.01
(B) 0.1 – 0.5
(C) 0.89 – 1.0
(D) 1.2 – 2.0
32. Crystallite size measured by XRD is:
(A) Grain size
(B) Coherently diffracting domain size
(C) Unit cell volume
(D) Interatomic spacing
33. Which method is used to separate strain and size effects in XRD peak broadening?
(A) Fourier Transform
(B) Tauc method
(C) Williamson-Hall plot
(D) Debye–Scherrer circle
35. What type of plot is used to find the bandgap from I–V characteristics?
(A) V vs I
(B) log I vs V
(C) ln I vs 1/T
(D) V vs R
36. What is the typical bandgap of silicon?
(A) 0.4 eV
(B) 1.1 eV
(C) 2.5 eV
(D) 3.2 eV
37. Bandgap energy is the energy required to:
(A) Move an electron from the nucleus
(B) Excite an electron from valence to conduction band
(C) Emit light
(D) Break a chemical bond
38. Which of the following affects the bandgap of a semiconductor?
(A) Temperature
(B) Material
(C) Crystal defects
(D) All of the above
39. Which diode is often used for experimental bandgap determination?
(A) Tunnel diode
(B) Zener diode
(C) PN junction diode
(D) Photodiode
40. What is the relation between slope of ln I vs 1/T and bandgap?
(A) Eg = slope × k
(B) Eg = −slope × k
(C) Eg = k / slope
(D) Eg = e / slope
41. In the air wedge method, the thickness of a thin sheet is determined by measuring:
(A) Refractive index
(B) Curvature of the lens
(C) Fringe width and length of wedge
(D) Radius of curvature
42. The air wedge is formed by:
(A) Two convex lenses in contact
(B) A lens and flat glass plate
(C) Two glass plates with a thin spacer at one end
(D) Two glass plates touching at one end and separated by the sheet at the other end
43. The shape of the interference fringes in an air wedge is:
(A) Circular
(B) Straight and parallel
(C) Elliptical
(D) Irregular
44. The thickness ‘t’ of the thin sheet is calculated using:
(A) t = λ/2
(B) t = (λL) / (2β)
(C) t = 2β / λL
(D) t = β / 2λ
45. The fringe width in an air wedge is given by:
(A) β = λ / (2θ)
(B) β = 2λ / θ
(C) β = θ / λ
(D) β = λθ / 2
46. In an air wedge experiment, if the wavelength of light used increases, the fringe width will:
(A) Decrease
(B) Increase
(C) Remain unchanged
(D) First increase then decrease
47. Which optical phenomenon is used in air wedge method?
(A) Refraction
(B) Diffraction
(C) Interference
(D) Dispersion
48. The spring constant (k) is defined as:
(A) k = mg
(B) k = x / F
(C) k = F / x
(D) k = 1 / (F × x)
49. In the static method, the spring constant is determined using the relation:
(A) T = 2π√(m/k)
(B) F = kx
(C) k = mg / x
(D) k = x / mg
50. In dynamic method, time period is measured for:
(A) One oscillation
(B) Half oscillation
(C) Several oscillations to improve accuracy
(D) Random oscillations
51. In the dynamic method, the formula for spring constant is:
(A) k = T² / m
(B) k = 4π²m / T²
(C) k = T / m
(D) k = m / T
52. Which graph is plotted in the dynamic method to find k?
(A) T vs m
(B) T vs √m
(C) T² vs m
(D) T vs 1/m
53. What should be the nature of the T² vs m graph?
(A) Parabolic
(B) Straight line through origin
(C) Circular
(D) Elliptical
54. What assumption is made regarding spring mass in dynamic method?
(A) It is negligible
(B) It is equal to suspended mass
(C) It is doubled
(D) It is temperature dependent
55. A strain gauge measures:
(A) Temperature
(B) Pressure
(C) Voltage
(D) Strain
56. What is strain in a material?
(A) Ratio of change in length to original length
(B) Ratio of force to area
(C) Work done per unit volume
(D) Deformation force
57. Young’s modulus is defined as:
(A) Stress / Volume
(B) Stress / Strain
(C) Force × Strain
(D) Stress × Area
58. In the strain gauge experiment, which bridge is used for precise voltage measurement?
(A) Kelvin bridge
(B) Maxwell bridge
(C) Wheatstone bridge
(D) Schering bridge
59. The gauge factor of a strain gauge relates:
(A) Voltage and current
(B) Force and displacement
(C) Change in resistance and strain
(D) Pressure and area
60. Which physical quantity is kept constant in strain gauge during calibration?
(A) Voltage
(B) Resistance
(C) Temperature
(D) Cross-sectional area
61. Tauc plot is used to determine:
(A) Carrier mobility
(B) Refractive index
(C) Optical band gap
(D) Thickness
62. The x-axis in a Tauc plot is:
(A) Wavelength
(B) Photon energy (hν)
(C) Absorbance
(D) Time
63. Which quantity is plotted on the y-axis of a Tauc plot?
(A) α
(B) log(α)
(C) α/ν
(D) (αhν)
n
64. What is the value of exponent
n
for a direct allowed transition?
(A) 2
(B) 0.5
(C) 1
(D) 1.5
65. For an indirect allowed transition, the Tauc exponent
n
is:
(A) 1
(B) 0.5
(C) 2
(D) 3
66. The absorption coefficient α is calculated from:
(A) Reflectance
(B) Absorbance and sample thickness
(C) Voltage and current
(D) Refractive index
67. What kind of band gap is estimated using Tauc plot?
(A) Optical band gap
(B) Electrical band gap
(C) Thermal gap
(D) Forbidden gap
68. The linear portion of Tauc plot is extrapolated to intersect the:
(A) Y-axis
(B) X-axis
(C) Origin
(D) Line of slope 1
69. The Tauc plot method assumes the material is:
(A) Opaque
(B) Amorphous or disordered semiconductor
(C) Metallic
(D) Transparent insulator
70. If the extrapolated line in the Tauc plot cuts at 2.2 eV, the bandgap is:
(A) 1.1 eV
(B) 4.4 eV
(C) 0.55 eV
(D) 2.2 eV
71. The output of a solar cell depends on:
(A) Temperature only
(B) Wavelength of light
(C) Load resistance
(D) All of the above
72. The efficiency of a solar cell is defined as the ratio of:
(A) Output voltage to current
(B) Output power to incident power
(C) Current to resistance
(D) Energy to mass
73. The fill factor is defined as:
(A) V
oc
× I
sc
/ Area
(B) P
max
/ (V
oc
× I
sc
)
(C) Fill factor = (V
mp
× I
mp
) / (V
oc
× I
sc
)
(D) V
mp
/ V
oc
74. Which of the following represents open circuit voltage?
(A) V
mp
(B) V
min
(C) V
oc
(D) V
avg
75. I
sc
stands for:
(A) Short circuit current
(B) Open circuit current
(C) Maximum power current
(D) Voltage gain
76. Maximum power output of a solar cell is:
(A) V
oc
× I
sc
(B) V
mp
× I
mp
(C) 0.5 × V
oc
× I
sc
(D) V
oc
/ I
sc
77. A typical fill factor value for a good silicon solar cell is approximately:
(A) 0.25
(B) 0.45
(C) 0.75
(D) 1.5
78. Which instrument is commonly used to record I–V characteristics of a solar cell?
(A) Multimeter
(B) Source meter or curve tracer
(C) Potentiometer
(D) Oscilloscope
79. Which environmental condition affects solar cell efficiency most?
(A) Humidity
(B) Temperature
(C) Altitude
(D) Wind speed
80. What is the ideal shape of the I–V curve for a solar cell?
(A) Straight line
(B) Sinusoidal
(C) Circular arc
(D) Rectangular-like curve with sharp drop
81. The least count of an instrument is defined as:
(A) The smallest error possible
(B) The total range of the instrument
(C) The smallest measurable value by the instrument
(D) The difference between actual and measured value
82. Which of the following helps reduce random errors in an experiment?
(A) Avoiding measurements
(B) Using faulty instruments
(C) Taking multiple readings and averaging
(D) Using old apparatus
83. The unit of least count of a stopwatch is usually:
(A) Hours
(B) Minutes
(C) Seconds
(D) 0.1 seconds or 0.01 seconds
84. Which of the following is a **systematic error**?
(A) Fluctuating zero error
(B) Zero error in instrument
(C) Human reaction time error
(D) Parallax error
85. Which statistical tool is used to measure spread in data?
(A) Mean
(B) Median
(C) Standard deviation
(D) Mode
86. How is absolute error calculated?
(A) Mean of observations
(B) |Measured value − True value|
(C) Percentage error
(D) Relative error × 100
87. Which method is best for determining accuracy in optical experiments?
(A) Approximate alignment
(B) Looking from sides
(C) Eliminating parallax error using eyepiece alignment
(D) Using colored filters
88. When performing Malus’s law experiment, the polarizer and analyzer should be:
(A) Precisely aligned and calibrated
(B) Randomly rotated
(C) Tilted by 30° always
(D) Rotated without observing light
89. While performing Tauc plot analysis, which precaution is necessary?
(A) Use opaque sample
(B) Ignore absorption near band edge
(C) Choose correct exponent depending on transition type
(D) Take absorbance in arbitrary units
90. To reduce error in XRD measurement:
(A) Use random scan rate
(B) Use scratched samples
(C) Take one peak only
(D) Use finely powdered homogeneous sample
91. While measuring I–V characteristics of a solar cell, avoid:
(A) Shadow falling on the cell
(B) Proper load connection
(C) Sunlight exposure
(D) Using multimeter
92. Least count of a vernier caliper commonly used in lab is:
(A) 0.1 mm
(B) 0.05 cm
(C) 0.01 cm
(D) 0.05 mm
93. What is the best way to reduce human reaction time error?
(A) Close your eyes
(B) Use automatic timing or repeat trials
(C) Ask a friend to record data
(D) Use random clocks
94. Which is **not** a source of experimental error?
(A) Instrumental error
(B) Human error
(C) Environmental error
(D) Perfect calibration
95. While measuring spring constant using dynamic method, the spring should:
(A) Be stretched manually and held
(B) Be rigid and inelastic
(C) Oscillate freely without damping
(D) Be greased for smooth motion
96. Which formula is used to calculate **standard deviation** of
n
values \( x_1, x_2, ..., x_n \)?
(A) \( \sigma = \sqrt{ \frac{1}{n} \sum (x_i - \bar{x})^2 } \)
(B) \( \sigma = \sum x_i / n \)
(C) \( \sigma = \bar{x} / n \)
(D) \( \sigma = n / \bar{x} \)
97. While performing optical activity experiment, which precaution is important?
(A) Remove air bubbles from solution
(B) Keep light source off
(C) Shake polarimeter frequently
(D) Use hot solution
98. Why is it important to keep the wedge angle small in air wedge experiments?
(A) Increases contrast
(B) Produces wider and well-separated fringes
(C) Avoids absorption
(D) Reduces reflection
99. In strain gauge experiments, which error may affect resistance measurement?
(A) Voltage drift
(B) Temperature variation
(C) Air bubbles
(D) Hysteresis
100. Parallax error can be minimized by:
(A) Looking from left side
(B) Changing observer every time
(C) Holding the scale loosely
(D) Looking perpendicular to the scale
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